The article is the effect of the cooperation of prof. Agata Buda and the graduate of English philology - Piotr Ruciński (University of Radom, Poland)

Agata Buda, Piotr Ruciński

MOTIFS OF THE SHAKESPEAREAN CHARACTER
IN CULTURAL CONTENT – COMPARISON OF MACBETH; HAMLET; THE DEVIL’S ADVOCATE

Abstract:

The article presents Shakespeare's themes, which are still relevant today. The model of the Shakespearean tragic hero remains virtually unchanged. Shakespeare's works are reproduced in modern literary texts today, expanding the cultural context around the world. Many writers continue to use Shakespeare's prototypical tragic hero, paying homage to one of the world's greatest playwrights. Numerous films are made in which the spirit of Shakespeare is present, making its immortality known. The Devil's Advocate is one of them. Together with Macbeth and Hamlet, it represents a strong thematic, cultural and psychological relationship to Shakespeare's tragedy and contemporary cinema, thus addressing aspects of human nature. The analysis in the article is based on the coexistence of literature and other media, namely with the usage of intertextuality. Among the discussed aspects of a Shakespearean tragic hero there are: the character’s mentality, his tragic flaw, morality and destiny.

Key words: intertextuality, tragic hero, tragedy, cultural context.

Streszczenie:

Niniejszy artykuł dotyczy tematyki szekspirowskiej, która jest wciąż aktualna. Sylwetka tragicznego bohatera szekspirowskiego pozostaje wciąż ta sama. Dzieła tego dramatopisarza pojawiają się we współczesnych tekstach literackich, wpływając na kulturowy kontekst na całym świecie. Wielu twórców wciąż wykorzystuje prototyp szekspirowskiego bohatera tragicznego, składając hołd jednemu z największych światowych dramatopisarzy. W licznych filmach można odnaleźć ducha Szekspira, co czyni go wciąż nieśmiertelnym. Adwokat diabła jest jednym z nich. Wspólnie z dziełem Makbet i Hamlet film reprezentuje silny tematyczny, kulturowy i psychologiczny związek z tragedią szekspirowską i współczesnym kinem, odnosi się zatem do aspektów ludzkiej natury. Analiza w niniejszym artykule opiera się na współistnieniu literatury i innych mediów, mianowicie na wykorzystaniu intertekstualności. Wśród omawianych aspektów dotyczących tragicznego bohatera szekspirowskiego znajdują się; mentalność bohatera, jego tragizm, moralność i przeznaczenie.

Słowa kluczowe: intertekstualność, bohater tragiczny, tragedia, kontekst kulturowy.

I.                Introduction

The reception of different motifs from well-known literary works in the modern culture is not a new phenomenon. Each time, however, while analysing the presence of classical protagonists in the modern works of art the echoes of the past sound differently and carry new meanings, taking into consideration personal experiences and cultural background of the receivers of a modern work. In the context of intertextuality, while analysing the elements of Macbeth and Hamlet in The Devil’s Advocate, it is worth paying attention to the definition of intertextuality and its various types. One of the most relevant descriptions of the presence of older motifs in modern works is presented by Stanisław Stabryła. And although his definition refers mainly to the presence of ancient elements, it can perfectly fit the reception of Shakespearean motifs in a film. Stabryła differentiates four types of the presence of ancient motifs in the modern works. These are revocation, reinterpretation, prefiguration and incrustation. Incrustation seems to be the least appropriate in the discussed context, as it mainly refers to the variety of ornaments used in poems, such as metaphors or allusions. Another type, revocation, although the most popular in the reception studies, here also seems not frequently used. It refers to the usage of the subjects and motifs but the change of meaning is not really essential. Both reinterpretation and prefiguration appear to be the most appropriate while seeking the echoes of Shakespearean characters in modern cinema. The former is connected with the change of the ancient motif, while the latter constitutes the system of analogies and references in the process of comparison the fates of the main characters and the structure of the world depicted (Stabryła 1996: 8- 9). Another definition of intertextuality that seems to be perfect in the analysed context is the definition created by Gérard Genette He distinguishes five types of intertextuality, or, transtextuality: intertextuality, paratext, metatext, hypertextuality and architextuality. Intertextuality means two texts coexisting together as a whole, paratext refers to the elements that are additional for the major text, like for instance title or illustrations, hypertextuality is the reference of one text to another, while the latter is created on the basis of the former, architextuality mainly refers to the taxonomy, for instance the usage of the words such as Poems or Essays as titles of the given works. The last type, metatext, which constitutes a critical commentary on a previous text (Genette 2014: 7- 11), seems to be the most accurate in the context of this research.

In the above context, the article covers the features of a Shakespearean tragic hero that can be easily recognized in the film The Devil’s Advocate.

II.               Mentality and Nature           

The examination of the psychological and emotional aspects of central characters provides critical insights into their tragic narratives. Along with the modern cinematic portrayal of Kevin Lomax in The Devil's Advocate, a deep exploration into their mental structure and emotional landscape reveals the intricate and complex nature of their tragic downfall. 

Macbeth, a character initially known for his bravery and prowess in battle, gradually becomes trapped in the web he creates for himself, mainly because of the overwhelming ambition that consumes him from within. This ambition, far from being a mere desire for power, transforms into something that overshadows his initial courage, leading him into the depths of moral decline. The juxtaposition of his heroism on the battlefield and his subsequent moral decline paints a clear picture of a man caught up in an internal conflict in which his ambition becomes both his driving force and his greatest adversary. 

A serious personal conflict deeply shapes Hamlet's actions in the play. He is a complex character, struggling with the heavy responsibility of revenge and its deeper meaning. Shakespeare shows that Hamlet is caught between his desire to take action and his tendency to overthink, making it difficult for him to make a decision. This inner conflict is a reflection of the common struggle people face when they are torn between what society expects of them and their values. His deep reflections make him doubt everything, from whether his actions are right to the very purpose of his life, highlighting the big questions about life, death and what is truly real. 

In The Devil's Advocate, Kevin Lomax's character embodies the dangers of unchecked ambition. Although different in context from Shakespearean characters, Lomax's journey shares similarities with them, as he succumbs to the seductive temptation of success and power, despite conflicting with his moral and ethical principles. This journey showcases the perilous path taken when personal values are sacrificed for the sake of ambition. As Lomax spirals further from his moral compass and relationships, he demonstrates the consequences of pursuing success at the cost of honour and personal connections. In essence, The Devil's Advocate serves as a cautionary tale, reminding humans us that ambition, when not tempered by moral considerations, can lead a human us down an unfaithful and destructive path. 

These characters are unique in many ways, yet they share similar psychological and emotional traits. They possess aspirations, engage in self-reflection, and confront ethical struggles that shape their lives. Thanks to the examination of their thoughts and actions, it is possible to gain insight into the complex human mind and the unfortunate consequences that can arise from inner disorder and desires. Researching these characters allows people to explore the mysterious collection of human emotion and motivation, revealing how our aspirations, ethical dilemmas, and the social structures in which humanity we exists influence our behaviour. The cultural context of these heroes shows that regardless of the period, all people have different natures and mentalities and that they will always have to deal with struggles. This prefigurative reference clearly shows the analogies in the characters’ mentality: both Hamlet, Macbeth and Lomax share the same aspirations, ambitions and specific moral rules.

II.1. The Evolution of Ambition and Power 

The growth of ambition and the pursuit of power in Macbeth, Hamlet and The Devil’s Advocate offers a profound insight into the interplay between human desires and ethical boundaries.  

In Macbeth, ambition initially appears as a noble trait, fuelling his bravery in battle. Shakespeare captures this transformation with the line, “I have no spur / To prick the sides of my intent, but only / Vaulting ambition, which o’er-leaps itself / And falls on the other.” (W. Shakespeare, 1993, p. 850). However, this ambition soon changes into a destructive force, symbolized in Macbeth’s lament, “Will all great Neptune’s ocean wash this blood / Clean from my hand?” (1993, p. 853), illustrating his initial moral decay. In Macbeth’s case, it is, so to speak, a reverse evolution, a regression. A man of honour becomes, through his ambition for power, a fallen and corrupt man. 

In Hamlet, ambition is more subdued but equally complex. His ambition is not for power in the traditional sense but rather a desire for moral and existential understanding, as well as for justice in avenging his father’s death. It seems that the evolution of Hamlet’s ambition is heading in the right direction, as the good son wants to take revenge for his father’s death. However, the character’s famous monologue speaks of a moral struggle as to whether to take action: “To be, or not to be:, that is the question...” (W. Shakespeare, 1993, p. 886). Hamlet’s ambition to reconcile the cause of avenging his father and staying true to his moral code makes the hero suffer and unable to make a decision. This form of ambition pushes Hamlet into a deep existential crisis, as he grapples with the moral implications of revenge and his role in a corrupt kingdom. 

In The Devil’s Advocate, Kevin Lomax’s journey reflects this theme. His initial idealism gradually capitulates to the seductive allure of power, summarized in Milton’s cynicism, “Free will., Iit’s like butterfly wings. – Oonce touched and it never gets off the ground.” (T. Hackford, 1997). Kevin Lomax’s ambition is shown to have both positive and negative consequences. At first, his drive brings him great success and a swift rise in his career as a lawyer. But as he gets more involved in the morally grey area of high-stakes law, his ambition starts to cost him, leading to questionable ethical decisions. Lomax’s change from being positively motivated by ambition to becoming negatively obsessed with it is similar to what happens to Macbeth and Hamlet, though it takes place in a modern environment. 

These characters’ experiences with ambition and power show up a timeless theme prevalent in both literature and real life: the perils of uncontrolled ambition and the moral dilemmas arising when power blinds ethical considerations. Macbeth’s tragic life, marked by the realization that “I am in blood / Stepp’d in so far that, should I wade no more, / Returning were as tedious as go o’er” (1993, p. 859), exemplifies this descent. Similarly, Hamlet’s reflection, “Thus conscience does make cowards of us all” (1993, p. 886), captures the ethical disorder bred by ambition. In The Devil’s Advocate, Lomax’s entanglement in power is rightly summarised in Milton’s words, “Vanity, definitely my favorite sin.” These narratives can be altogether regarded as moralising issues and showing how initial ambition can rise to the size of a harsh force, leading to moral disorientation and, ultimately, to tragedy. For the sake of the cultural context, ambition and power are interdependent and altogether they can have destructive power if not uncontrollable. 

II.2. The Duality of Human Nature  

When discussing Shakespeare's characters Macbeth and Hamlet along with Kevin Lomax from The Devil's Advocate, it we can be noticedsee how they embody the duality of human nature. Their inner struggle is caused by the conflict between their desires and the expectations of society. This conflict affects not only their actions but also their psyche, revealing a deep psychological complexity. It is important to note that this theme is not just a character trait, but a fundamental human condition that affects all people. 

In Shakespeare's Macbeth, the theme of ambition is depicted in a dualistic manner. At first, Macbeth is portrayed as a courageous warrior. However, he undergoes a profound change, driven by his ambition, which is in direct contrast to the values of loyalty and honour. The witches’ prophecy awakens his undeveloped ambition, leading to a series of actions that culminate in an ethical collapse, symbolized by the murder of Duncan. This act, motivated by the temptation of power, represents a significant deviation from his earlier noble qualities. Macbeth’s internal struggle, encapsulated in his words, “I have no spur / To prick the sides of my intent, but only / Vaulting ambition, which o’er-leaps itself / And falls on the other” (1993, p. 850) highlights the chaos that arises when personal ambition collides with societal expectations. This conflict underscores the exploration of ambition’s corrupting potential when it overshadows moral constraints.  

The ethical struggles of Hamlet in Shakespeare's play reflect the conflict of Hamlet’s dualistic nature between his desire for revenge and the societal standards of justice and morality. Hamlet’s philosophical and reflective disposition creates difficulties in his decision-making. He is torn between the need to avenge his father's murder and to uphold his moral values. This internal struggle is a crucial aspect of his personality, driving the plot and highlighting the challenges of balancing personal ambition with social norms. Hamlet's dual nature stands at two extremes: to kill Claudius for plotting against his father or to remain true to his morals. 

The Devil’s Advocate presents a contemporary approach to this theme through the character of Kevin Lomax. Lomax, a highly ambitious lawyer, faces a conflict between his desire for professional success and the ethical standards of his profession. His ambition leads him to make choices that compromise his moral uprightness, reflecting the contemporary relevance of this duality. He begins to defend, for example, paedophiles and murderers at all costs. Lomax’s journey demonstrates how personal ambition can clash with professional and ethical expectations, leading to significant moral consequences. This is a clear example of prefiguration – the change of the context together with the analogy to the characters of Macbrth and Hamlet.  

In all three narratives, the duality of human nature is a critical theme that adds depth and complexity to the characters. It emphasises the internal struggles individuals face when trying to fulfil personal desires and societal expectations. This exploration of human nature’s duality also provides a broader human experience, where the conflict between personal desires and societal norms is a recurring aspect of the human condition. Human nature is complex in its duality, often leading individuals to pursue multiple conflicting issues simultaneously. 

II.3. The Role of Self-Reflection and Introspection  

The role of self-reflection and introspection in the context of tragic characters such as Macbeth, Hamlet, and Kevin Lomax from The Devil’s Advocate is a crucial part of understanding their internal struggles and decision-making processes. Introspection, in these narratives, is not just a passive activity but an active force that significantly influences the characters’ journeys and the choices they make.  

For Macbeth, introspection acts as both awareness and a harbinger of inner unrest. Particularly after Duncan’s murder, his self-reflection amplifies his understanding of his moral failings. However, this same introspection triggers a descent into guilt and paranoia. This internal struggle is sadly captured in his hallucination, “Is this a dagger which I see before me, / The handle toward my hand?” (1993, p. 851)​​. This quote not only reflects Macbeth’s growing mental distress but also highlights his realization of the significance of his actions, featuring the tragic impact of his choices on his psyche and moral compass. From Macbeth’s self-reflection and introspection, among other things in his hallucinations, it is clear that the character is remorseful for all the evil he has done. 

In Hamlet’s story, introspection plays a larger and more intricate role. His internal monologues are famous for their depth, offering insights into his deep existential and ethical dilemmas. Hamlet’s reflective nature sheds light on his internal struggles, facing issues of morality, existence, and the essence of action. However, this introspection also hinders his decisiveness, greatly influencing the tragic development of the plot. His meditations, filled with philosophical considerations, present a character deeply absorbed in introspective thought, trying to balance his inner conflicts with external pressures. And here again comes Hamlet’s famous monologue “To be or, not to be: , that is the question...” (1993, p. 886). It is his self-reflection about Hamlet’s inability to make a constructive decision. To be means to take risks and act, while not to be would mean passivity and allowing the action to unfold without his participation. 

In The Devil’s Advocate, regarding the film’s main plot, where pride reigns over the protagonist Kevin Lomax, there are contrasts with characters like Macbeth or Hamlet, primarily due to his lack of introspection. His ambition and desire for success blind him to the moral results of his actions. This point is shown in Milton’s observation: “You sharpen the human appetite to the point where it can split atoms with its desire”​​ (T. Hackford, 1997). Lomax’s failure to self-reflect leads to his downfall, illustrating the dangers of unchecked ambition. His character serves as a cautionary tale about the necessity of introspective thought in maintaining one’s moral and ethical compass. On the other hand, at the end of the film, Kevin Lomax shows his self-reflection and introspection. At the end of the film, the viewer learns that the whole action did not happen and that it was Kevin’s vision that he had gone against the code of a lawyer and chosen the path of pride. As Lomax’s vision comes to an end, the film returns to the very beginning, so to the first court case. The protagonist experiences the epiphany that he cannot defend a paedophile because this could have tragic consequences, as in his vision. Self-reflection forces him to acknowledge the loss of the film’s first court case and not to defend the accused at all costs. 

The three narratives provide examples of how introspection significantly impacts the psychological landscapes of the characters. The presence or absence of introspection shapes their paths and leads to tragic outcomes. It reveals the complexity of the human psyche and highlights the importance of introspection in guiding moral and ethical dilemmas throughout life. Introspection can be a source of insight, but it can also cause inner conflict. A person doing wrong may or may not be inclined to introspection and self-reflection. If so, he will notice that he is going down the wrong path, but if not, he will sooner or later meet with punishment. 

II.4. The Consequences of Moral Compromise  

The theme of moral compromise in Macbeth, Hamlet, and The Devil’s Advocate is a central element that profoundly impacts the characters’ tragic narratives. This theme reveals the damaging effects of ethical compromises on their lives, relationships, and self-perception.  

In Macbeth, the decision to murder King Duncan is the first in a series of moral compromises. This act sets Macbeth on a path of ethical degeneration, culminating in his isolation and downfall. His initial compromise, driven by ambition, becomes an unsteady ground, leading to further moral wrongdoings and eventually to his tragic end. In the case of Macbeth, one mistake entails a series of consequences. He begins with the murder of the king, followed by his madness and that of his wife Lady Macbeth and ends with Lady Macbeth’s suicide and Macbeth’s death. The end is the moral collapse of the marriage. 

Hamlet’s narrative is marked by hesitancy and morally ambiguous actions. His pursuit of revenge and his inability to act reflect his internal conflict and the consequences of his ethical values. Hamlet’s struggle with these moral dilemmas highlights the complex nature of ethical decision-making, especially when personal desires conflict with moral responsibilities. The moral consequences for Hamlet are first and foremost his dilemma about his decision. He is driven by conflicting emotions; he wants to kill his father’s murderer but also knows he should not do so. This is a great suffering for Hamlet’s moral compass. The final consequence, even though he finally decides to murder the King, is that he dies. 

In The Devil’s Advocate, Kevin Lomax faces ethical concessions in his legal career. His choices, particularly in high-stakes legal cases, result in damaged relationships and a loss of self-identity and integrity. Lomax’s story illustrates the gradual failure of moral principles in the face of ambition and success. Consequently, Lomax and also his wife Mary Ann become tragic heroes. His unhealthy ambitions led Kevin and Mary Ann to the point of tragedy. It could be said that his desires killed his wife and he lost his wife through lack of control. It is this same urge that causes Kevin to find out the truth about his family and pushes him to the hopeless option of suicide. Kevin prioritises success over family and loved ones. 

These instances, where characters compromise their morals, illustrate how straying from ethical principles can lead to internal and external disasters, ultimately resulting in tragedy. This theme also emphasizes that individuals cannot avoid responsibility, and their wrongdoings will eventually lead to negative outcomes. To live in harmony with oneself and one's surroundings, a person must not renounce moral ethos and act contrary to it. 

III. A Tragic Flaw 

The concept of a tragic flaw, deeply rooted in classical tragedy, serves as a necessity in understanding the failure of characters such as Macbeth, Hamlet, and Kevin Lomax. This flaw, often referred to as hamartia in the realm of literary criticism, is far more than a mere character weakness; it represents an important imperfection that precipitates the tragic hero’s downfall. 

In the case of Macbeth, his ambition, initially portrayed as an admirable trait, gradually transforms into a blinding force driving him towards his ruin. He comes across as a man of honour and a trusted man of King Duncan. He is also a friend of Banquo. Macbeth, along with Banquo, meets witches who issue a prophecy to both heroes. They say that Macbeth will become king of Scotland and thane of Cawdor, for Banquo is to be the father of kings. This rather incoherent prophecy awakens Macbeth’s irrepressible thirst for power, which blinds him to the point where he goes from being a righteous man to murdering the king. He is also disturbed by the prophecy of Banquo, so he commissions the murder of Banquo and his son Fleance, but the latter avoids the assassination attempt. Macbeth utters words indicative of his tragic flaw which is ambition “To be thus is nothing, / But to be safely thus” (1993, pp. 855-856) signifying the fear of losing power because of Banquo’s prophecy. Shakespeare masterfully depicts Macbeth’s ambition as a double-edged sword, pushing him to greatness but at once to his demise.  

Hamlet’s inability to make decisions is a central part of his tragic character. Thus, Hamlet’s tragic flaw is indecision. The hero hears from his father’s ghost that he has been the victim of a conspiracy by the current King Claudius and wants his son to avenge him. Hamlet, however, is a man of honour with a good heart. On the one hand, he wants to fulfil his father’s request; on the other, he does not want to act badly against the moral code. Hamlet’s indecisiveness causes him much mental suffering. This indecisiveness is more than just hesitation; it is closely connected to his intellectual and philosophical nature. Hamlet’s tendency to deeply consider moral and existential issues ironically becomes his biggest weakness. His habit of overthinking and his struggle to act quickly symbolize a more significant internal conflict, reflecting the complexities of the human experience. Hamlet’s tragic flaw is a result of his deep understanding of the world, which, although intellectually enriching, leaves him unable to act decisively in situations that require it.  

Kevin Lomax in The Devil’s Advocate, though a character from a different era, shares this model of a tragic flaw with Macbeth and Hamlet. His tragic flaw is excessive pride, particularly in his legal competence and the unbroken streak of victories, which sets him on a destructive path with his own downfall. Lomax’s tragic flaw, namely the desire to be invincible, leads him to renounce the moral ethics of a lawyer and also to a series of disasters for him and his loved ones, the death of his wife and himself. The portrayal of Lomax’s pride speaks to the contemporary audience, highlighting the perils of overconfidence and the loss of ethical direction in the pursuit of personal glory. His flaw is a touching reminder of the dangers inherent in prioritizing success and recognition over moral and ethical considerations. In this case the reference to the tragic flaw of Macbeth and Hamlet is presented in the form of revocation – the change of the motif is not visible here, only the context of various epoques is the difference. 

In Macbeth, Hamlet, and The Devil’s Advocate, the tragic flaws of the central characters are essential to their narratives. These flaws, deeply ingrained in their identities, crucially shape their stories. This self-analysis of human weaknesses, as explored by Shakespeare and mirrored in the character of Kevin Lomax, reveals a constant literary theme: the human tendency for error. This classic theme is common in modern storytelling and it provides insights into the human psyche. Moreover, the tragic flaw shows how attributes once considered strengths can change into destructive flaws.  

III.1. The Impact of Ambition on Morality 

In the tragic narratives of Macbeth, Hamlet, and The Devil’s Advocate, ambition is highly important in shaping their moral struggles.  

In Macbeth’s case, his ambition for power leads him to morally catastrophic choices, as reflected in his words, “I am in blood / Stepp’d in so far that, should I wade no more, / Returning were as tedious as go o’er” (1993, p. 859). Macbeth’s statement here speaks of how his wild ambition has driven him so far in his intrigues and murders that there is no way back. It also captures the irreversible moral decline. Hence, Macbeth’s ambition is fraught with irreversible consequences, through it he gains power, but he also renounces all moral and ethical principles through conspiracy and murders.  

Similarly, in Hamlet, the prince’s ambition for revenge thrusts him into a moral grey zone ending in tragedy. Hamlet has ambitions to vengeance his father but is also full of doubts about whether he will follow his own ethical and moral code. Ultimately, he chooses the path of ambition to fulfil his murdered father’s request and takes revenge. Ambition and his father's wish win over Hamlet, and he finally fulfils them. He follows the path of iniquity which ends in his tragic death. 

In The Devil’s Advocate, Kevin Lomax’s professional ambitions lead him to compromise his ethical principles, showcasing how personal ambitions can significantly impact moral decision-making and result in tragic consequences. The case of Kevin Lomax is identical. A good example describing how ambition affects Kevin Lomax’s morality is his conversation with Milton (T. Hackford, 1997): 

John Milton: That day on the subway, what did I say to you? What were my words to you? Maybe it was your time to lose. You didn’t think so. 

Kevin Lomax: Lose? I don’t lose! I win! I win! I’m a lawyer! That’s my job, that’s what I do! 

John Milton: I rest my case. Vanity is definitely my favorite sin. Kevin, it’s so basic, self-love; the all-natural opiate. You know, it’s not that you didn’t care for Mary Ann, Kevin. It’s just that you were a little bit more involved with someone else: yourself. 

It is clear in the dialogue that Kevin’s ambition has taken control of him. Milton is right about Kevin’s narcissistic behaviour. Unsatisfied ambition leads him to renounce the principles of human morality and the professional ethics of a lawyer, which leads to a series of disasters such as defending in court individuals who are undoubtedly guilty, his wife’s delusions, her suicide or Lomax’s suicide. And again, this is the example of a revocation of Shakespearean motif of malignant ambition that leads to a disaster. 

Ambition in the works influences the history of the characters and their decisions. It is the driving force leading to the doom of Macbeth, Hamlet and Kevin Lomax. They are wicked ambitions taking control of the protagonist and their lives. The cultural context shows that a man can go out of his way through his excessive ambition. This is disastrous for him, even though he initially seems to have everything under control. Human nature tends to follow excessive ambitions which leads to moral vacillation and evil acts. 

III.2. The Role of Indecision and Doubt  

Indecision and doubt play an important role in the narrative of Macbeth, Hamlet and The Devil’s Advocate. The characters in these three works, however, differ in the degree of these traits. 

In Hamlet, the theme of indecision and doubt is central to his tragic narrative. His hesitation is more than a personal flaw; it represents a complex psychological struggle between deep philosophical introspection and the motivation for decisive action. This internal conflict is exemplified in Hamlet’s contemplation, “How all occasions do inform against me, / And spur my dull revenge!” (1993, p. 896)​​ or “To be, or not to be: t, that is the question...” (1993, p. 886) These quotes embody Hamlet’s paralyzing indecision within moral and existential challenges. Furthermore, Hamlet’s indecision makes him mad which is detrimental to his mental health. He begins to show mental exhaustion from reflecting. The doubts push him to behave in ways perceived as strange by others. 

As for Macbeth, he shows uncertainty and doubt too, but to a lesser degree than Hamlet. Certainly, the difference between the two characters is that Hamlet’s narrative is based for a long time on his indecision about whether or not to avenge his father, while Macbeth is indecisive in taking action only at the beginning. A key role is played by his wife, Lady Macbeth, who persuades Macbeth to overthrow the current king and seize power. Lady Macbeth utters these words “When you durst do it, then you were a man; and to be more than what you were, you would be so much more the man” (1993, p. 851). In this way, his wife questions her husband’s manhood and pushes him to commit the crime. 

Kevin Lomax from The Devil’s Advocate also has a certain amount of doubt, more comparable to Macbeth than Hamlet. This is most evident when he defends the Gettys in a teenage girl’s sexual abuse case. During the trial, Lomax sees what Gettys is doing, stroking his crotch and gesturing meaningfully under his desk. In a scene where there is a momentary pause in the trial, Kevin is in the bathroom and it is apparent that he has doubts about his duty to defend the accused. He is angry, washes his face with water and looks in the mirror. The second scene showing his doubts about defending the accused murderer of three people, Cullen, is the action on the train. Kevin finds Cullen guilty of the crime he committed and his secretary a liar. Kevin does not know what to do, whether to defend Cullen or waive his defence, he walks back and forth on the train and talks to Milton. This is another prefigurative reference to the Shakespearean characters: the world depicted is different, similarly to the degree of doubt presented by the figures.

Kevin Lomax, Macbeth and Hamlet have an inner conflict characterised by doubt and indecision. Hamlet, however, shows the greatest indecision, which allows him to be separated from Kevin Lomax and Macbeth in this matter. In the context of culture, these traits are normal human factors, putting a person in a difficult situation to take or refrain from taking action. Each person will have this degree of doubt and indecision, varying from situation to situation and from personality to personality. Although indecisiveness is a factor that every human being has within them, an excess of it, has a devastating effect on the human psyche. This element makes the person vulnerable to the words of others, helpless or mentally exhausted. 

III.3. The Illusion of Control and Hubris

            The main characters in Macbeth, Hamlet and The Devil’s Advocate believe that their lives are under control, but this is only an illusion. Hamlet, Macbeth and Kevin Lomax lose this control and this leads to their downfall. They are also marked by hubris.

In Macbeth, the false belief in control and excessive pride are significant themes. Macbeth’s overconfidence and illusion of power over his fate are captured in his words, “I will not be afraid of death and bane, / Till Birnam forest come to Dunsinane” (1993, p. 867). This demonstrates his hubristic belief that he can control his destiny and outsmart the witches’ prophecies, leading to his ultimate downfall. His arrogance blinds him to the potential consequences of his actions, showcasing the dangers of misconceived self-determination and the tragic outcomes it can yield. Macbeth can only have the impression that he is in control and will have control over everything and himself. In reality, this is not the case, however, for after the murder of King Duncan he begins to lose control of himself and descends into madness. He begins to fear that the conspiracy will be discovered and that the truth will come out.

In Hamlet’s narrative, his struggle with roles and duties leads to a distorted sense of control. This is reflected in his expression, “The readiness is all” (1993, p. 905)​​, indicating his acceptance of fate’s unpredictability, yet still highlighting his initial overconfidence. In the case of Hamlet, it is difficult to speak of a strong sense of control. On the one hand, Hamlet seems to have a strong sense of control over his thoughts and emotions, especially in the context of philosophical reflection and analysis of the situation. His monologues show his capacity for reflection and intellectual control, making him appear to be aware of his decisions. On the other hand, however, Hamlet is also entangled in complex family and political relationships, leading to conflict and difficulty in maintaining control over external situations. Political manipulation, betrayal and uncertainty about his father’s truth make Hamlet lose his certainty about reality and find it difficult to maintain control over what is happening around him. The final act of the tragedy shows that Hamlet’s sense of control is illusory when his fate and decisions are largely determined by external forces. In addition, in some cases, he is driven by hubris and a belief in his superiority. In Hamlet’s conversation with Horatio, the hubris of the main character is evident. The conversation is about the duel with Laertes (1993, p. 905):

Horatio: You will lose this wager, my lord.

Hamlet: I do not think so. Since he went into France, I have

been in continual practice. I shall win at the odds. But

thou wouldest not think how ill all’s here about my heart -

but it is no matter.

Hamlet’s confidence in his abilities is evident in this dialogue. Hamlet’s hubris tells him that he will win the duel with Laertes.

In The Devil’s Advocate, the revocative character of the motif shows that Kevin Lomax’s overestimation of his legal and moral judgement similarly blinds him to the implications of his choices. At the beginning of The Devil’s Advocate, Kevin Lomax actually has control over his life. He has a great job and is good at it, a loving wife and mother. However, when he starts working for Milton, this control over his life Kevin loses. He begins to be put to the test by Milton, undermining his ethical and moral principles. Control over his life begins to be taken for granted by Kevin’s hubris, leading to the downfall of the protagonist and his loved ones. On the surface, it may seem that Milton, as Satan, is in control of Kevin but this is not quite true. In a conversation in Milton’s office, Milton explains to Kevin that he is supposed to be in control of his life and that he has free will. Milton’s conversation with Kevin calls for reflection (T. Hackford, 1997):

Milton: What did I say to you? What were my words to you? Maybe it was time to lose. You didn’t think so.

Kevin: Lose?! I don’t lose, I win! I win! I’m a lawyer, that’s my job, that’s what I do!

Milton: I rest my case.

This dialogue shows that, however, Kevin had control and the right to choose but probably did not realise them through blinding hubris. 

All characters are typified by hubris and an illusory sense of control over reality or emotions. Given the broad cultural context, this is a common phenomenon. Human nature is such that a person can have so much pride and self-confidence that he or she thinks that every situation is under control, without realising this illusion.

III.4. The Downfall of the Tragic Hero

The downfall of the tragic hero is a common feature in understanding who the tragic hero is. He is vibrantly portrayed in Macbeth, Hamlet, and The Devil’s Advocate. This downfall, far from being a mere plot device, emerges as an inevitable consequence of the protagonist’s inherent tragic flaws. Each narrative represents the journey from the hero’s peak of greatness to their ultimate failure, emphasizing the inextricable link between character flaws and destiny. These stories not only depict the tragic end of the protagonists but also serve as warning tales about the moral and thematic importance of personal flaws and their unrestricted growth, which invariably lead to profound and irreversible consequences.

In Macbeth, the tragic flaw of uncontrolled ambition is central to the protagonist’s downfall. Macbeth, a character initially portrayed with valour and ambition, gives up to the lure of power and greatness, as prophesied by the witches. His ambition, while initially a positive trait, gradually transforms into a destructive force. This ambition sets him on a path of moral degeneration, leading to acts of betrayal, murder, and tyranny. Macbeth’s final downfall is his tragic death at the hands of Macduff. Macbeth, a respectable man goes from the path of goodness and righteousness to the complete opposite. Lady Macbeth’s life comes to a tragic end as she commits suicide. Macbeth illustrates how this once-valiant hero becomes consumed by his ambition, resulting in his tragic downfall. Macbeth’s story is an upsetting reminder of how a singular, overpowering flaw if not controlled or countered, can lead to one’s self-destruction.

Hamlet’s tragic downfall, on the other hand, is rooted in his indecisiveness and deep internal conflict. Unlike Macbeth, Hamlet’s flaw is not an overabundance of ambition, but rather his philosophical and moral contemplation, which leads to paralyzing indecision. His struggle to reconcile his moral values with the need for decisive action in avenging his father’s murder creates a profound internal conflict. This conflict, while showcasing his depth of character and intellect, ultimately becomes his undoing. Hamlet’s inability to act decisively, despite his understanding of the moral implications of his situation, leads to a series of tragic consequences. His story highlights the danger of excessive introspection and indecision, especially when decisive action is required. Hamlet’s fall also ends in death. Hamlet dies in a duel with Laertes from a poisoned sword.

In The Devil’s Advocate, Kevin Lomax’s tragic fall is intricately linked to his hubris and moral compromises. As an ambitious lawyer, Lomax becomes increasingly blinded by his quest for success, ignoring ethical limits. Kevin Lomax, or rather his vision, ends his tragic journey similarly, he dies. Unlike Hamlet and Macbeth, however, Lomax commits suicide to deceive Milton who wants the child-antichrist conceived by Kevin and his sister Christabelle. His story exemplifies the tragic hero archetype in a contemporary setting, underlining the risks of unbridled ambition and ethical laxity in personal and professional endeavours. The difference lying in the characters’ fates in the case of the film exemplifies the reinterpretation of the motif: the tragic hero is not killed by kills himself.

These narratives collectively illustrate the unstoppable link between character flaws and destiny. Speaking of the cultural context, they explore the moral and thematic importance of personal flaws, showing how these flaws lead to tragic outcomes. The stories of Macbeth, Hamlet and Kevin Lomax serve as timeless reminders of the profound impact that integral flaws can have on an individual’s life and destiny. They stress the complexity of the human condition, where the very traits that elevate a character to greatness can also lead to their ultimate downfall. The characters of Macbeth, Hamlet and Kevin Lomax all share the common factor of a tragic death and relate to a cultural context. Their actions, mistakes or ambitions ending in their downfall reflect the human tendency to err and it shows that a man is responsible for what drives him to act and for the eventual consequences.

IV. The Road of No Return

The concept of the road of no return plays a crucial part in the tragic storylines of Macbeth, Hamlet, and The Devil’s Advocate, marking a key turn in their paths towards tragedy. This point of no return is not only a tool for storytelling but a significant moment of transition. The characters’ decisions create this road of no return and it serves as an irreversible change that transforms the destiny of a protagonist. The tragic flaws of the protagonists, through which they make choices and close the path of return, also play an important role in this aspect.

In Macbeth, the act of regicide is the definitive turning point for Macbeth, signifying his complete immersion into moral corruption and the start of his descent into madness and tyranny. What drives Macbeth to make an irreversible decision is his tragic flaw and that is greed. This moment is emblematic of the irreversible nature of certain choices, where the act of crossing moral boundaries sets forth a chain of events that cannot be undone. Macbeth already has no way out of the situation he finds himself in. Macbeth murders King Duncan so this automatically closes his path back to righteousness and makes him a murderer. He thereby makes it impossible for him to escape the witches' prophecy and further terrible transgressions put him further and further away from returning to the right path.

 Similarly, in Hamlet, Polonius’ death represents an important moment in Hamlet’s story. Hamlet’s tragic flaws - his desire for revenge and indecision - create a scenario of a road of no return. Above all, it is his desire for revenge that closes this path for him when he mistakenly kills Polonius. This act also born from confusion and impulsiveness, determines his fate and sets off the fatal events that follow. This irreversible act makes Hamlet a murderer, which has further consequences throughout the tragedy, such as the probable suicide of Ophelia, the deaths of Hamlet and Laertes as well as Hamlet’s mother, and the fulfilment of Hamlet’s father’s will and thus the murder of Claudius.  It signifies a shift from thought to action, although incorrect, emphasising the long-term consequences of rash and unconsidered acts.

In the modern narrative of The Devil’s Advocate, Kevin Lomax’s ethical compromises in pursuit of legal victory represent his road of no return. These compromises, initially subtle, gradually escalate, leading him down a path from which he cannot return. Kevin’s breakthrough and closing moments on his way back to proper lawyer ethics are his defence of Gettys and acceptance of an offer to work for Milton. His ethical transgressions, driven by ambition and a desire to succeed at all costs, become the defining moments that mark his transition from a moral individual to one who is willing to sacrifice his principles for personal gain. These moments underscore the theme that certain choices, once made, set forth an unstoppable trajectory towards tragedy. It also emphasises the significance of ethical decision-making in shaping one’s destiny. On the other hand, however, like any human being, Kevin has free will. He can always decide on his own, not acting under anyone's influence, and he can always back out of a decision he has made. Such a scenario even takes place when his vision ends and there is a return to the beginning of the film. Lomax decides to back down from defending Gettys, he wants to return to the moral path. Nevertheless, right after the trial he gets an offer, as it turns out from Milton undercover, to give an interview about what he did, and thus about the moral decision of the lawyer. And here the definitive factor in favour of making an irreversible decision is the tragic flaw of the protagonist.

In all three narratives, the concept of a road of no return serves as significant acts that conceptualise the themes of moral integrity, the consequences of ambition, and the irreversible nature of certain actions. These are profound reflections on the human condition, offering insights into moral choices and tragic outcomes of flawed decision-making. This concept also shows that man himself can choose the path he wishes to follow and, regardless of the outcome, he is responsible for it. The way it is portrayed in the film is a prefigurative reference, closely linked to the Shakespearean tragedies.

IV.1. The Psychological Impact of Irreversible Decisions

            The irreversible choices made by characters like Macbeth, Hamlet, and Kevin Lomax in The Devil’s Advocate have a deep psychological impact, drastically affecting their mental states and self-awareness. Their stories and personalities show what harmful social factors can result from such decisions and how the human psyche can suffer.

For Macbeth, choosing to commit regicide is not only a moral collapse but also the beginning of paranoia and insanity. Every decision he makes is irreversible and tragic for his mental health. Above all, Macbeth begins to hallucinate and have terrible visions. The first hallucination taking place even before he kills Duncan is the dagger. This hallucination shows that Macbeth’s psyche is in an unhealthy state and that he wants to kill the king. Macbeth’s other hallucination is the ghost of the murdered Banquo. During the feast, only Macbeth can see him which shows his deepening paranoia. What’s more, his irreversible decisions also affect his wife Lady Macbeth, who also begins to manifest madness. She also begins to have hallucinations manifested by sleepwalking. Some of the most important Lady Macbeth quotes are “Here’s the smell of the blood still” (1993, p. 866) and “The Thane of Fife had a wife; where is she now? What, will these hands ne’er be clean?” (1993, p. 866). Both of these quotes show how bad a mental state Lady Macbeth is in; she is hallucinating about her husband’s murders. She sees and smells blood.

Hamlet’s decision to pretend to be mad is a significant factor in the events of the play. It impacts his relationships with others and has a psychological effect on his mind. While it allows him to gather information and plot his revenge, it also strains his relationships with loved ones and ultimately contributes to Ophelia’s tragic fate. Hamlet’s madness has a profound impact on the events that followed. The irreversible act with a profound impact on Hamlet’s psyche and whole surroundings is also the killing of Polonius. He mistakenly kills Polonius when he is hidden behind a curtain. This irreversible act of taking someone’s life deepens Hamlet’s paranoia and internal conflict. His sense of alienation also intensifies. Following the murder of Ophelia’s father, Hamlet’s outsider status becomes more entrenched, and an increasing number of individuals in his surroundings begin to experience fear and suspicion. It is evident that Hamlet struggles to bear the burden placed upon his shoulders independently. Shortly after killing Polonius, Hamlet utters the following words to his mother: “A bloody deed! Almost as bad, good mother, As kill a king and marry with his brother” (1993, p. 892). These words not only betray him but also allude to the breaking point of his mental endurance.

It might seem that Kevin Lomax from the film The Devil’s Advocate has no control over his actions, including those that are irreversible, and that his life is dictated by Milton. However, the ultimate agency lies with Kevin; what he does will have consequences. The irreversible decision made by Kevin to defend Gettys has a psychological impact on him and further situations. Despite suspecting Gettys of sexual harassment, Kevin chooses to defend him in court. This irreversibly committed act serves as the genesis of the entire film’s narrative. Lomax eventually catches the attention of Milton’s firm, leading to his acceptance into the company. This, in turn, initiates further moral and psychological complications, ranging from the abandonment of ethical principles to the eventual suicides of Kevin and his wife.

The irreversible decisions in Hamlet, Macbeth, and The Devil’s Advocate demonstrate that every action a person undertakes has a psychological or socio-moral impact. These decisions made by individuals can harm mental well-being, one’s overall sense of self, personality, and the principles by which they are guided. It is a common phenomenon in culture that when a person does something that cannot be fixed or changed, harmful implications begin to emerge.

After a successful COIL dedicated to the exploration of colonial and postcolonial literary works that UKF organised in autumn 2023, I decided to try out a shortened version of the course with our external students this semester.

The course focused on one representative poem from each Rudyard Kipling and Louise Bennet, particularly "The Overland Mail" and "Colonisation in Reverse". After analysing the poems, the students made posters focused on portraying both the positive and negative effects of colonisation, decolonisation, and reverse coloniasation on white and native peoples alike.

The students of the 1st year of English philology and applied linguistics (University of Radom, Poland) during the literature classes with prof. Agata Buda presented their interpretations of The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer. They portrayed their own ideas of the figures of medieval pilgrims: the knight, the squire and the prioress. The aim of the classes was to present the masterpieces of English literature thorugh the eyes of a modern reader.

During literature classes with prof. Agata Buda at Casimir Pulaski University of Radom, Poland, the students of the 2nd year of English philology presented their own interpretations of the novel Hard Times by Charles Dickens, presenting the Industrial Revolution and its influence on the lives of the British in the 19th century. Among the presentations there were, among others, the picture interpretation - the book seen through the eyes of a child, various images of two contrasting worlds depicted by the great writer, as well as the poem written by one of the students.

In Coketown’s streets of smoke and grime by Kacper Toporek

In Coketown’s streets of smoke and grime,

Where the wheels of industry mark the time,

Facts rule the heart, cold and austere,

Chaining the soul in logic’s sphere.

"Teach nothing but facts," the masters proclaim,

"Imagination's folly is a dangerous flame."

Sleek machines churn, unfeeling, precise,

And human joy becomes the price.

But in the cracks of this rigid domain,

The world of dreams begins to strain.

A child’s soft laugh, a flicker of art,

A whisper of love breaks the factual heart.

Oh, Sissy Jupe, with your wondrous lore,

You bring the color to facts' gray core.

Your dreams bloom where reason fails,

Weaving life’s beauty in fairy tales.

Yet, Gradgrind marches, his ledger in hand,

Measuring worth in numbers and land.

"Imagination is folly," he says with disdain,

But his own heart knows a quiet pain.

For dreams and facts are not foes at war;

Together they shape what we reach for.

The gears of truth, the wings of desire,

Build a world both stable and inspired.

So let Coketown’s chimneys cast their shade,

But never forget where dreams are made.

In the quiet of thought, in a child’s wide eyes,

In the boundless heavens where freedom lies.

The students  from Partium Christian University who attended the COIL sessions organized by CPU , Nitra entitled'LIterature and History"  were asked to write a report which is also  part of the assessment for the course on British and American Press which I teach. During the course students need to interpret news reports as well as write reports on a recent event. In their reports they described the COIL lessons taught ny prof. Maria Hrickova and prof Erok Gyorgy as well as their own thoughts about the content and messages of the onlines lessons.

On November 22nd, PCU and Debrecen Reformed Theological University organized the international online conference NETWORKS 2024 where researchers and teachers from four countries presented their recent scholarly and teaching work.  During the afternoon session, I presented our project recent outputs in a presentation entitled"An overview of the teaching material produced by the PCU members of the Erasmus Plus project: “Fostering Students’ Interdisciplinary Competence through the Action-Oriented Approach and COIL “ After presenting the  output our colleagues have produced , namely the interdisciplinary lesson plans I also discussed some samples of the teaching activities implemented in the lesson plans. 

This semester I again got the inspiration for two of the project lesson plans from my students. Hereby I want to express my thanks to them and acknowledge their contribution to the project.

The first one, Exploring the issue of violence through Anthony Burgess’s "A Clockwork Orange", was inspired by a group of 3rd year bachelor students in the program of English teaching, who prepared a whole table top game to explore the various aspects of the literary work. Namely, Kristína Klampárová, Zuzana Kmeťová, and Simona Petrová.

This is how it looked during their class.

Since it would be very complicated to transform their ready made game plan to an online version, I decided to rework it into two versions: a powerpoint game and a card game.

The second lesson plan, Exploring cultural stereotypes through David Lodge’s "Changing places", was inspired by 2nd year bachelor students in the program of English teaching, namely, Michaela Blahová, Dominika Kóšová, and Diana Považanová.

Here are examples of some activities included in the lesson plan, such as a bingo game focused on revising the knowledge about the novel, 

a drawing activity in which students should describe a character from the novel through 5 items representative of the characters,

and a poster that will be the final outcome of the lesson, reconstructed through each student contributing their own ideas about the cultural stereotypes about British and American people they observed in the novel or in modern media, and about stereotypes in general.

This week my bilingual third-grade students are giving presentations on the topic The top 3 books everybody should have read by the age of 18. Their task was to prepare a presentation choosing and introducing 3 different books that every student should have read by the age of 18 and explain their choice. They were asked to comment on the benefits reading these books brings to students’ life, the theme, and the highlights of the chosen books. The students demonstrated a high level of maturity, knowledge and understanding of the books’ ideas and motifs which was reflected in captivating and interesting presentations. Among the discussed books belong, for example, Animal Farm; The Color Purple; We Are the Weather; The Secret; To Kill a Mockingbird; The Hunger Games, All the Bright Places or How to Think Like A Roman Emperor. Through deep and complex interpretations, they proved that young people still read a lot and they have much to offer in terms of their opinions and perspectives on the literary world.

Currently, in our lessons we deal with literature, reading and its importance in the life of young people. After my students had read different books and prepared a presentation about them, I decided to dedicate two more lessons to teach them how to write a story in the first place and what principles they should follow when writing. The second half of the lesson was focused on the development of creative writing skills by writing a story on their own. The task was to write a one-paragraph-long story in groups (it could be also longer), each group receiving the same random words (ghost, potato, sock, saucepan and capybara) but a different genre (romantic story, horror story, adventure story, mysterious story, sci-fi and historical fiction). Despite the fact that the words had nothing to do with each other, I was positively surprised by the outcome of their work. They demonstrated a rather big amount of creativity and imagination that I would like to acknowledge by sharing a few of their stories with you.

Even though it is not the time of Halloween, I would like to share with you the materials I have been working on this week. They are closely related to the lesson plan Public Holidays – Halloween I designed with my colleagues, but one of them can be equally used teaching any other public holiday or holidays in English-speaking countries in general. The first document is a warm-up activity that can be used instead of the one we initially planned in our lesson plan, in other words, instead of students brainstorming symbols of Halloween, they would be given cards with names of holidays they need to match to cards with symbols or traditions that represent them. Sometimes the pictures are obvious, sometimes they need to think about what they actually represent to guess the corresponding event. Public holidays we usually deal with more in the lessons are presented in greater number in this Pelmanism activity.

The other document is a mind map of the same topic that is supposed to be the result of the lesson, created and presented at the end by students. I prepared it as an extra material for the lesson plan in order to use it also separately as a teaching and learning aid. You are welcome to used both documents if you find them useful in the future.